Maritime Voyaging in the Fifteenth Century

     I thought it was interesting, and very well worth noting, the different trajectories that the Chinese and the Europeans had in terms of maritime voyaging. Up until this point, I had absolutely no idea that the Chinese participated in maritime voyages and traded with a variety of people before the Europeans embarked on their voyages simply because textbooks largely chose to ignore this aspect of history due to their emphasis on European history.

     In a nutshell, the Chinese, under the leadership of the Muslim eunuch Zheng He and commissioned by Emperor Yongle, embarked on maritime voyages covering Southeast Asia and the lands around the Indian Ocean. With over 300 ships and a crew of about 27,000 people, this fleet dwarfed that of the European voyages. On his voyage to the New World, Christopher Columbus only brought three ships along with him. Seeing that the Chinese had a fleet 100 times that of Columbus' fleet speaks volumes about the possible military power of the Chinese navy.

     Interestingly, the Chinese did not decide to continue their maritime voyages, and did so rather abruptly. Scholars speculate that the reason for this was due to the death of Zheng He. With no one to lead these voyages, and since the Chinese government never cared for these voyages anyway, the Chinese fleet was left to rot and the voyages stopped.

     Strayer suggests that it was maybe because the Chinese stopped their maritime voyages that allowed the success of the European voyages. Because of the Chinese presence in Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean, much of the area was regulated by the Chinese, making the area safer. Therefore, European travelers were allowed to travel to these areas without experiencing major difficulties. However, Strayer also notes that if the Chinese never stopped their maritime voyages, then world history as we know it could have ended up quite differently. If the Chinese remained a significant presence in Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean,  then the Europeans would have a much harder time exerting their influence over the area. This, in turn, would prevent much of the European supremacy and colonialism that resulted in later centuries.

Debate #3: The Mongols

The Mongols got a bad rep from historians. In fact they deserve respect for creating a civilization with a long-term impact on world history. Yes or No?

     I do not think that the Mongols really deserve respect for creating a civilization with a long-term impact on world history because of a variety of things. First of all, the Mongols did not really create a civilization; rather, they mostly asserted their influence over a wide region. Even then, their "civilization" did not last a long period of time. In addition, while they did conquer a large part of the Afro-Eurasian world, they did not establish their own identity. They merely resided in these places like the nomadic peoples that they were. The difference between their situation after they conquered different countries compared to when they were living solely in the steppes was that the Mongols did not need to worry about anyone invading them since they already ruled the area.
     Another reason that the Mongols did not technically have their own civilization that resulted in a long-term impact on world history is that they were barbarians, not "civilized" peoples. Even after they conquered other peoples, they went about their barbarian practices and nomadic ways. For example, in China, the Mongols continued to live in tents in their own secluded area separate from the Chinese people. Also, the Mongols did not have their own specific civilization; rather, they assimilated themselves within the civilization that they conquered. Rather than exert their authority and their culture over their conquered lands, the Mongols instead became a part of the civilizations that were already there. Over time, the Mongols were not even identifiable as pure Mongols since they blended in so well within the civilization with which they were occupying. This definitely comes off as a failure in terms of creating a unique civilization for the Mongols.
     Lastly, the Mongolians were thought to have facilitated the spread of the Bubonic Plague. Therefore, rather than creating a civilization, the Mongols indirectly caused the fall of many civilizations through the spread of the Plague. In addition, their methods of conquering other lands caused the fall of established civilizations, requiring those civilizations to then rebuild. Another point against the Mongols is in terms of religion. Each civilization had a religion that mostly dominated that region. The Mongols, however, did not have their own religion. Also, they adopted whatever religion would benefit them at that specific moment in time. Therefore, they switched back and forth on religions just as long as it benefited them then. This further indicates that the Mongols continued their nomadic mindset, thus rendering nomadic and not "civilized."

Islam

     In the modern world, people's idea of Islam and Muslims is quite skewed, especially in America. However, looking back at the very beginnings of the religion and the empire allows one to understand the religion more and notice that the modern events involving Islam was not how it was in the beginning.

     From 600 to 1600, Islam played a central role in the Afro-Eurasian role, which then lived on to the modern age. This civilization spanned multiple continents, establishing prosperous cosmopolitan areas, such as Mecca and Baghdad, in places such as Europe, the Middle East, Africa, and Asia. The founder of the religion, Muhammad Ibn Abdullah, who was born in Mecca as part of the Quraysh family, was said to have been meditating in a cave when the angel Gabriel revealed himself to Muhammad, relaying the word of God to him. After establishing the new religion, his very own people, the Quraysh were against him, causing Muhammad and his small band of followers to leave Mecca and reside in Medina. Over time, Muhammad was able to conquer other territories, including winning over Mecca by defeating their forces, leading to the expansion and growth of the Islamic Empire. Due to Muhammad's great military expertise, Islam spread all throughout the Afro-Eurasian world, establishing influence in many territories such as Ghana, India, and especially Persia.

     The Quran, the Islamic holy book said to contain the sayings of God, greatly influenced the religion, dictating much of the way people lived. In addition, it described the way people were supposed to conduct themselves. Although both men and women were equal under God, men were considered superior to women. Women were supposed to be covered from head to toe and wearing veils. Men were not allowed to look at a woman, whether those men were old or not, and therefore were not allowed to touch a woman, unless that woman was his wife. Also, women were often relegated to their own quarters and were not allowed to leave the room unless they were fully covered. Despite all of these regulations restricting women, women still observed some freedom and rights. For example, they were allowed to choose their husbands and could initiate divorce. In terms of slave marriage, men were allowed to marry up to four women, but he had treat them all equally. In addition, men could marry slave women only after he set them free. Women, on the other hand, were not allowed to marry slave men.

China and the World: East Asian Connections

     Many historians choose to focus on the Europeans and their Renaissance period and noting how significant this period of time was for the entire world, then and now. However, they have chosen to ignore an equally significant Renaissance-of-sorts that occurred in the East. China was one of the major civilizations of the classical world, but it does not get enough attention and recognition. Further examination of the area sees that there were very significant ideas and technologies that originated from China, which eventually spread to other parts of the world. Therefore, China's influence was not only contained in one specific area; its reach spread across much of Eurasia.
     During the political conflicts of the "era of warring states," Confucianism and Daoism took hold and became integral to Chinese society. Due to the growing popularity of Confucianism, however, men actively subordinated women, reducing the rights that women could enjoy. After marriage, women were required to leave her family and become part of her husband's family, where all of her property became his. In addition, wives had to constantly compete with concubines and prostitutes for their husbands' attention, and did so by practicing foot-binding in order to make their feet look smaller since that was considered beautiful. Unfortunately, this was a painful process that resulted in women's feet to be deformed.
     China's influence reached that of Korea, Vietnam, and Japan. Since they were part of the mainland, Korea and Vietnam experienced a lot of Chinese influence that was mostly forced upon them, such as Confucianism. Before the invasion of the Chinese, women enjoyed more freedom in Korea and Vietnam. However, due to Confucianism being enforced in these countries, women were stripped of most of their freedom and rights, such as being able to marry a man of their choosing and living in her family's home. Japan, on the other hand, welcomed Chinese influence, especially their political system, since it seemed to be prosperous. However, the Chinese could not enforce their influence on the Japanese since they were not part of the mainland, thereby allowing the Japanese to pick and choose what parts of the Chinese culture that they wanted to adopt.
     China's influence was not restricted to the lands around them. Their reach spread all the way to the west in the European countries. Their inventions of gunpowder, silk, the magnetic compass, paper, and printing traveled through the silk roads and spread to various parts of the continent. However, China was not the only one spreading their influence; they were also at the receiving end of it. Inventions such as the cannon made their way into China, thus revolutionizing their military strategies. The most important and influential idea that made its way into China, however, was the religion of Buddhism. Buddhism became a central part of Chinese culture, and the Chinese version of the religion even found its way to Korea, Vietnam, and Japan. Overall, the Chinese Renaissance, although not as highly publicized, was just as significant as that of the European Renaissance.

Considering the Evidence: Representations of the Buddha

     Transformations in Buddhist belief and practice disclosed in these images show the progression from the early depictions of the Buddha to the more prominent images of him in various cultures that survive into the modern era. The first image shows the Buddha's footprints as the main focus, which reinforces the fact that Buddha's earliest followers strongly believed that the Buddha could not be portrayed as physically present since he had passed into nirvana. Countless other portrayals of the Buddha at this time further emphasizes this belief as the Buddha has been represented "as an empty throne, a horse with no rider, a tree, a wheel, or in some other  way, while largely shunning any depiction of him in human form" (Strayer 208).

     The next image shows the Buddha in human form, which surfaced from the South Asian region known as Gandhara. Being part of the Roman Empire at the time headed by Alexander the Great, the Buddha in this image draws from some Greco-Roman influences. He is shown to have a Roman-style toga, the curly hair characteristic of the Mediterranean region, and a face like that of the Greek god Apollo. Also in the image is the Bodhi tree in which the Buddha meditated and across from the Buddha the demon Mara and her seductive daughters try to tempt and seduce the Buddha. 

     The third image is a depiction of the Bodhisattva of Compassion, which is usually portrayed as a woman, or with with obvious female characteristics. The most famous Bodhisattva of Compassion is Avalokitesvara in Mahayana Buddhism, known as Guanyin in China and as Kannon in Japan. The image is of Kannon and is shown to have "1,000 arms," with multiple arms carrying a different object, signifying the openness and acceptance of this figure to anyone and everyone who needed help. Especially since Mahayanan Buddhism was known for its acceptance of everyone regardless of their social status, and the Boddhisattva of Compassion is known for rescuing whoever calls it for assistance, the image thus portrays that belief successfully.

     The final image is of the Chinese Buddha, which is drastically different to the previous images and depictions of the Buddha. Modeled after a tenth-century monk known as Budai who was known as a fat, smiling, and contented figure who wandered around China spreading messages of happiness and cheer, this Buddha is constantly portrayed laughing.  The image shows him laughing and surrounded by his countless followers, thus enforcing the fact that this Buddha was an approachable Buddha who was removed from the message of suffering.

In Praise of Athenian Democracy

     Pericles describes Athenian democracy as an example institution that rivals their neighbors' forms of government. He notes that Athens is referred to as having a democracy because of the fact that the administration is in the hands of the majority and not the minority. He goes on to say that due to the fact that Athens has an established democracy, every citizen is treated equally under the law. However, he also acknowledges the fact that if someone does something great or selfless, such as leading a military victory, they will receive rewards. This is not to be confused "as a matter of privilege, but as the reward of merit." Pericles then adds that wealth is not a factor, and that everyone will be treated equally regardless of their social status. That being said, poverty should not be an excuse to avoid serving Athens, since everyone is equal under the law and therefore should contribute equally to serving Athens and the community. Pericles continues by stating that while people are allowed to do or think what they wish in the privacy of their homes, doing so in public will result in punishment as it is a violation and a disrespect of the law and the authorities.
     Pericles's argument for democracy draws from both fundamental principles such as human equality and from practical benefits that derive from such as system of government. Pericles first focuses on the importance of every citizen having their basic human rights. He then goes on to list the benefits of having a democratic society, such as the strength of the military and the copious amount of leisure time.
     Pericles believes that democracy produces ideal and civilized citizens. He notes that they have a lot of leisure time, and they take advantage and encourage that time. He then goes on to talk about the Athenian military and, although the youth spend much of their time training for battle, they still live at ease. Also, they are an open nation that values knowledge and does not rely on trickery but on "our own hearts and hands." Therefore, the Athenian society is an easygoing society, yet they are prepared for battle whenever they are called to do so. Pericles finishes off by stating that the Athenians are simple people in a simple society. He states that since everyone does whatever they are supposed to do to serve Athens, then they are able to live in peace and simplicity. However, if someone decides to serve their own household before the community, that is when the problems arise. Critics may have responded to Pericles's arguments by stating that they just lost the Peloponnesian War against Sparta, therefore Pericles does not know what he is talking about.
     Even though Athens lost the Peloponnesian War, I think Pericles's argument still has some validity to it, in terms of the other aspects of Athenian lifestyle besides its military. In terms of the military, I feel as if they may want to rethink some of their strategies and be less open. To me, it seems as if Pericles seems to be very arrogant, which distorts some of the descriptions he has of Athenian lifestyle. This arrogance could be due to the fact that Athens led the battle against the Persian army and won, prompting Pericles to believe that Athens was indestructible, resulting in him describing Athens in a more glorious light.

Chapter 2: First Civilizations

     I love how Strayer included the example in the beginning of the chapter of the Colorado woman asking on the internet for the best place to escape civilization. I never noticed the irony of that mindset before. I know countless individuals, myself included, who complain about society and long  to revert back to nature, when society is one of the most noteworthy accomplishments in human history. Maybe it just shows how humans in general are unsatisfied with what they have and take things for granted. Countless religions emphasize the desire to be one with nature and escape the toxicity of modern society.
     Another interesting point that was brought up was the fact that these first civilizations all started separately, but at around the same time as well. Not only that, but some of the aspects of these civilizations were similar to one another, such as how they all established around a river or water source. However, at what point does a chiefdom or village become a town or city? This question was interesting because what guidelines and what is the blueprint that we adhere to? Is there a certain amount of people that is required to be a town or a city? Or is it based on how much the society has, in terms of technological advances and political rulers? Referring back to the rise of the first civilizations, most, if not all, of these civilizations abandoned much of the lifestyle that rendered them egalitarian. With the rise of civilizations, women's roles, massive inequalities, state oppression, slavery, large-scale warfare, and diseases ran rampant. Although different from the modern view, slavery had its start when civilizations conquered other civilizations, and were not determined by skin color. In addition, a social hierarchy was established, with the ruling and upper class taking advantage of the lower classes, especially the slaves which consisted mostly of prisoners of war. Since these kings and rulers were regarded as god-sent, most people either did not want to challenge them, or worshiped them, regardless of how they were being treated. Something that I want to point out was when he was talking about what an outsider's perspective of visiting one of these civilizations would be like, Strayer continually used the pronoun "she." This threw me off and garnered my attention at the same time, since everyone is so accustomed to seeing the pronoun "he" being used when not referring to someone in particular. This only reinforces Strayer's position on females and how much he is against the dominant male Eurocentric viewpoint, which I love.

Nisa: The Life and Words of an !Kung Woman

     While Nisa lived in more modern times, I still feel as if her account is still valid for understanding the life of much earlier Paleolithic people since it is better than nothing at all. There is evidence that she has had contact with a wider world as she mentions that she is not a village person and that she is someone who does not own anything and that certain people say that she is poor. Obviously, people from her own community would not say that she is poor since they are in the same position as she is. Therefore, she must have had contact with others who are more established than she is financially than she is. Plus, she is being interviewed by an American anthropologist.
     From what she is describing, the woman does not have a say in choosing her husband and whether or not she gets married. She notes that she did not love her husband and probably did not really know him that well, which points to the fact that they had arranged marriages. Eventually, she did fall in love with him after a while, but compared to contemporary society, that is very backwards. Usually, we would fall in love with someone, then decide to marry that person. Also, her ideas on sex was that "A man has sex with you. Yes, that's what a man does," (Strayer 48). Additionally, she says "I... gave myself to him, gave and gave. We lay with each other and my breasts were very large. I was becoming a woman," (Strayer 49). From what I can gather, Nisa must have been very young when she was married, probably before puberty. Maybe women in general all married young. In terms of sex, Nisa notes that she had multiple affairs, as did her fourth husband. She states "But I did have lovers and so did he.... Because affairs... is something that even people from long ago knew," (Strayer 49). She justifies this by saying that if she had more than one man, then she would receive multiple gifts. Therefore, only having one man would not be satisfying. In modern times, this would be seen with much disapproval.
     Nisa believes that God is stingy and his "heart is truly far from people," (Strayer 49). She goes on to say that God's ways are foul; first he grants her with a child, then takes it away from her and leaves her completely alone and in pain. She finishes it off by stating "That's the way it is. God is the one who destroys. It isn't people who do it. It is God himself," (Strayer 49). In terms of the curing rituals that she took part in, Nisa describes n/um and what is does to cure. Personally, I think she is describing a sort of drug, maybe even alcohol. Interestingly, she notes that sometimes n/um works and sometimes it doesn't, and that's because God "doesn't always want a sick person to get better," (Strayer 50).
     Overall, I get the vibe that Nisa's assessment of San life seems to be critical. Throughout the different topics she discusses in her interview, she always has something critical to say: She doesn't like stingy people who don't share what they have, she didn't like her husband at first and was upset when they were married, she denounces and blames God for all the pain and suffering she has felt for the loss of her loved ones, she wasn't a big fan of her fourth husband which prompted her to have multiple lovers, and she didn't like how the healing ritual made her feel.

Agriculture

     I thought it was interesting how the Neolithic or Agricultural Revolution occurred not in one area specifically, but separately and independently from one another throughout the entire world. Also, the fact that there are pieces of evidence that some Paleolithic societies had already demonstrated some knowledge and practiced certain aspects associated with the Agricultural Revolution even before the revolution itself began. It's amazing to me how this revolution all began with the digging stick or hoe. Considering how different the world is and how landscapes and terrains are different in other parts of the world, the fact that they all implemented horticulture, albeit with some variations, is simply astounding. I'd also like to note that while talking about the Fertile Crescent and how that was the area that first experienced a full Agricultural Revolution, Strayer again intentionally refers to the area as Southwest Asia rather than what we call it today: the Middle East. I love how he really tries throughout this book to remove the male Eurocentric point of view that we all hold in modern society and try to see things for what they really are. The Middle East is geographically Southwest Asia, so why do we refer to it as the Middle East? Because Europe is our reference point? That shouldn't be  how it is. Europe isn't the center of the world, so it shouldn't be our reference point.  Another point that Strayer is trying to emphasize is recognizing females as equal counterparts to men. Strayer has constantly tried to drive this point home, and not only does he provide solid, concrete examples to do so, he changes the language and vocabulary that we already know into what it truly is. For example, we've always been taught that the Paleolithic people were hunter-gatherers, with the male Eurocentric view again in place, even though Strayer notes that the females, or gatherers, provided seventy percent of the food and were essentially the breadwiners. Therefore, Strayer refers to the Paleolithic people as GATHERER-hunters, since they were, in fact, gatherers first, hunters second. I think it's great that Strayer is giving credit where credit is due, and if it were the men who had brought in the most amount of food, then Strayer would correctly refer to the male role first. He isnt placing females first constantly and disregarding the men. It just so happens that that's what he has to do since the male writers of history has constantly put men first and disregarded the women. Strayer is just being fair to history and honoring their memory correctly.

     Referring back to the chapter, I thought it was interesting how those in the Americas managed to be part of the Agricultural Revolution, especially since they lacked the domesticated animals native only in Eurasia. Granted, they focused mainly on hunting and fishing and eventually domesticated plants like corn and maize, since they didn't have wild wheat and cereals native exclusively in Eurasia. I think we also have to keep in mind is the fact that the Americas had a north/south orientation, which made it harder for them to spread agricultural practices and adapt to different climatic and vegetation zones. Eurasia, on the other hand, had an east/west orientation, which meant that agricultural practices were able to spread more quickly because they were entering similar environments. Overall, it's amazing to me how the globalization of agriculture spread, albeit slowly and taking at least 10,000 years to complete, from the Fertile Crescent and resulted in the creation of chiefdoms, village societies, and pastoral societies.

The Ways We Are

     Paleolithic societies were largely nomadic, therefore transportation of goods, if they had any surplus goods, was impossible. Also, these groups were very involved in personal relationships since each group consisted of only about twenty-five to fifty people. Because of these conditions, Paleolithic societies were very much egalitarian. Therefore, these people were free of the injustices and tyranny associated with a more civilized society. Although everyone was treated equally since there were no specialized jobs or leaders, men took on the role of hunters while women were the gatherers. This resulted in the idea of masculinity involving the killing of large animals. While the idea of a life free of the injustices of the modern world may seem like a utopia, these Paleolithic societies were not always harmonious. Men often engaged in bloody combat for a woman, while many of the men publicly beat their wives. Additionally, executions of disruptive individuals were common, proving that these societies had a problem with violence.

     Contrary to the impoverished view that modern people have on them, the hunter-gatherers actually had fewer working hours since they only worked to meet their material needs, thus leading to more leisure time. Granted, their life expectancy was low and were at the mercy of Mother Nature. However, the Paleolithic also substantially altered the environment around them, causing the landscape around them to change and led to the extinction of multiple species.

     While hard to pin down, there is evidence pointing to the fact that Paleolithic people did have a form of spiritual life removed from their ordinary lives, such as the presence of rock art in caves suggesting that there was a "ceremonial space" for these people. Due to the abundance of Venus figurines found in the areas inhabited by Paleolithic people, scholars believe that they worshiped a higher deity or Great Goddess, and had a cyclical view of time, as opposed to time moving in a straight line towards a goal that later Western civilizations were associated with.

     Over time, humans began to miniaturize their tools, analogous to the miniaturization of electronic components in the modern world. Also, due to the end of the Ice Age, species who were not able to survive the cold climate now flourished in the warmer climates. Because of the higher survival rate, societies were becoming larger and, therefore, had to settle down. This resulted in a gradual increase of inequality due to some individuals being more energetic or just plain lucky to come out on top. Interestingly, these people also created elaborate burial sites, meaning that there must have been a kinship or connection between the people. A separate burial site for dogs suggest that they were the first domesticated animal. One of the most amazing achievements of the Paleolithic people is the Gobekli Tepe, a ceremonial site in southern Turkey. This site involves construction long associated with agricultural societies exclusively, thus prompting speculation of the capabilities of the Paleolithic people.

Out of Africa to the Ends of the Earth: First Migrations

     Evidence has shown that humans first originated from Africa, with the first 150,000 years of human experience being on the continent. Homo Sapiens first emerged in eastern and southern Africa some 200,000 to 250,000 years ago. Although evidence is scarce due to the climate of the region as well as the sheer amount of time since, there is evidence of human activity in the region. These include human remains in areas where no other hominids had traveled before and evidence of technological innovations such as spears and hand axes, which later resulted in hunting and fishing. Grave sites indicate that these humans practiced rituals and other social behaviors. But the greatest feat of all is how these humans branched out of Africa into other parts of the world during the last Ice Age with only stone tools and hunting technology.

     From Africa, humans first migrated through the Middle East, then to Europe, and finally to Asia in the east. In the west, archaeologists have found that due to the colder Ice Age climates, those living in the northern part of Europe were pushed to the south to seek out warmer climates. Additionally, these people left behind cave drawings and paintings depicting their everyday lives and leaving images of human beings. In the east, in what is now Central Europe, Ukraine, and Russia, evidence shows these people developing various new technologies, such as multilayered clothing, pottery, and storage pits. They also lived somewhat underground with mammoth bones and tusks used to build shelter. Interestingly, these Eastern European peoples had numerous carvings of female figurines found all throughout Eurasia, raising questions such as the presence of a network of human communication, was the movement in Eurasia from west to east or vice versa, and what was the status of women in these communities?

     The humans who migrated to Australia came from Indonesia and had access to the boat, a new technological invention. Although Australia's population was limited, they had developed about 250 languages  and collected a wide variety of wild wheat. They also hunted a great amount of large and small animals. Along with their technological simplicity, they developed a new outlook on the world known as Dreamtime, which expressed stories through ceremonies and rock art. Dreamtime was a way for these humans to explain how the world worked and further reinforced how these peoples were part of an interconnected network.

     Due to the difficulty of traveling through Siberia, settlement in the Western Hemisphere occurred years after the settlement in Australia. Historians disagree about the method of transportation into the Americas, with some arguing that it was through the Bering Strait, while others believe it was by sea down the west coast of North America. The Clovis culture was one of the first defined and widespread cultures in America, with archaeological records indicating that Clovis men were hunters of very large mammals, such as mammoths and bison. However, during what scholars believe to be the end of the Ice Age, all traces of the Clovis culture abruptly disappeared. Historians connect this disappearance to the extinction of the mammoth, could mean that the Clovis people either hunted these animals to extinction, or died due to the lack of a food source from the suddenly drier climate. After the end of the Ice Age, various groups of people learned to adapt to their new climates, ultimately forming cities and states.

     The migration in the Pacific was remarkable, since it involved transportation through vast bodies of water. Additionally, the fact that many of these people, both men and women, traveled with plants and animals on board meant that they had intentions of colonizing other parts of the world. This resulted in the expansion of the Austronesian family of languages, making it the most geographically widespread in the world. In many of the settlements, two developments followed. One was the creation of a stratified society with appointed chiefs leading the commoners. The other was the rapid extinction of many of the region's animal species.

Yay I'm done!

Yay - I'm done!